Proportionate spatial sampling and equal‐time sampling of mobile animals: A dilemma for inferring areal dependence

Abstract Patch or island area is one of the most frequently used variables for inference in conservation biology and biogeography, and is often used in ecological applications. Given that all of these disciplines deal with large spatial scales, exhaustive censusing is not often possible, especially when there are large numbers of patches (e.g. for replication and control purposes). Therefore, data for patches or islands are usually collected by sampling. We argue that if area is to be used as an inferential factor, then the objects under study (i.e. the patches) must be characterized on an areal basis. This necessarily means that fixed‐area sampling is inadequate (e.g. a single standard quadrat or transect set within patches irrespective of the patch area) and that some form of area‐proportionate sampling is needed (e.g. a fixed areal proportion of each patch is surveyed by random allocation of standard quadrats across each patch). However, use of area‐proportionate sampling is not usually dissociated from the increased temporal intensity of sampling that arises from using this approach. The dilemma we see is deciding how much of the area‐specificity of variables such as species richness, rare‐species indices or probabilities of occurrence of individual species is related to the area‐proportionate survey protocol and how much is due to the temporal intensity of surveys. We undertook a study in which we balanced temporal and spatial effects by increasing the time spent surveying smaller patches of vegetation to account for the area‐ratio difference. The estimated species richness of birds of the box–ironbark system of central Victoria, Australia, was found to depend strongly upon area when area‐proportionate sampling alone was performed. When time‐balancing was imposed upon area‐proportionate sampling, the differences between smaller (10‐ha) and larger (40‐ha) areas were much reduced or effectively disappeared. We show that species found in the additional surveys used to conduct the time‐balancing were significantly less abundant than species recorded in area‐proportionate sampling. This effect is probably most severe for mobile animals, but may emerge in other forms of sampling.     

Heat coma and its relationship to ocean dynamics in the oceanic sea skaters of Halobates (Heteroptera: Gerridae) inhabiting Indian and Pacific Oceans

This study was performed to clarify how weather and current dynamics affect the resistance to temperature change in the oceanic sea skaters, Halobates. Heat coma temperature (HCT) was measured for the adults and 5th instar larvae of four Halobates species collected from a fixed sampling location (12°00′N, 135°00′E ) in western tropical Pacific Ocean and from 13 locations in the eastern area of the India Ocean ranging from 08°00′N-06°00′S and 86°00-76°00′E. Both the gap temperature for heat coma (GTHC, mean±SD: 7.83±1.86 °C, n=32) and the heat coma temperature (HCP, 35.03±1.80 °C, n=32) of individuals collected from the Pacific Ocean, during the first half (10 days) of the sampling period at the fixed sampling point, were significantly higher than those during the second half (GTHC: 5.10±2.05 °C, n=63; HCP: 34.03±2.02 °C, n=63). The reduction in heat tolerance shown in the second half of the 20 day period may have been caused by a decrease in air temperature due to rainfall that occurred around the sampling point accompanied with the arrival of Typhoon No. 6.In the study of individuals collected from the Indian Ocean, significantly higher average GTHCs of >8 °C were recorded for the adult H. micans collected at 02°00′S and 06°00′S (89°00′E) than those at 0°00-8°00′N in the eastern Indian Ocean. Dynamic mixture of water from northern and southern currents occurs at 02°00-6°00′S of the Indian Ocean and might relate to such high heat tolerance.Temperature dynamics in the ocean habitat might directly affect the temperature resistance of the oceanic sea skaters.     

Predation as the primary selective force in recurrent evolution of gigantism in Poecilozonites land snails in Quaternary Bermuda

During the last half million years, pulses of gigantism in the anagenetic lineage of land snails of the subgenus Poecilozonites on Bermuda were correlated with glacial periods when lower sea level resulted in an island nearly an order of magnitude larger than at present. During those periods, the island was colonized by large vertebrate predators that created selection pressure for large size and rapid growth in the snails. Extreme reduction in land area from rising seas, along with changes in ecological conditions at the onset of interglacial episodes, marked extinction events for large predators, after which snails reverted to much smaller size. The giant snails were identical in morphology during the last two glacials when the predators included a large flightless rail Rallus recessus (marine isotope stages (MIS) 4-2) and a crane Grus latipes and a duck Anas pachysceles (MIS 6). In a preceding glacial period (MIS 10), when the fauna also included the tortoise Hesperotestudo bermudae, the snails were not only large, but the shells were much thicker, presumably to prevent crushing by tortoises. Evolution of Poecilozonites provides an outstanding example of dramatic morphological change in response to environmental pressures in the absence of cladogenesis.     

武汉城市圈生态网络时空演变及管控分析

武汉城市圈正历经城乡发展转型升级和空间格局调整，生态用地受到一定挤压和切割占用，生态系统功能和景观生态格局受到一定程度的扰动，为贯彻生态文明建设和绿色低碳环保发展的要求，构建以生态廊道、生态节点所组成的整体城市圈的生态网络空间体系。基于形态学空间格局方法和最小累积阻力模型构建4个时期（1990、2000、2010和2018年）的生态网络，利用景观连通性指数和重力模型对源地和廊道进行重要性评价，并提出武汉城市圈生态网络管控的建议。结果表明：（1）1990-2018年，武汉城市圈生态源地总体上表现为逐渐减少的趋势，从16个减少为10个；从空间上看，大型源地斑块并未发生变化，主要分布在研究区南部和北部，林地和水域是生态源地的主要组成景观，但细碎斑块大量减少对区域生态网络具有较大影响。（2）4个时期研究区的生态廊道分别为66条、120条、99条和45条，廊道数量呈现减少的趋势；重要廊道主要分布在研究区北部和东南部，对南北之间的物质和能量交换具有重要作用。（3）景观连通性南北高东西低，中部地区受人类活动干扰综合阻力大，东西部生态节点较少，物种迁移阻碍较大。（4）通过建设踏脚石、修复生态断裂点和廊道差异化保护策略以增强区域景观连通性，促进生物多样性保护，提升生态网络的稳定性。"两型社会"试验区设置后武汉城市圈生态网络水平呈现优化态势，但生态源地之间的相互作用关系还有待增强。研究结果为城市圈未来的国土空间规划和重要生态系统保护和修复工程提供科学参考。     

Aluminium-induced changes in the surface and micropore properties of wheat roots: a study using the water vapor adsorption-desorption technique

The geometric and energetic characteristics of root surfaces of two wheat (Triticum L.) varieties, Al tolerant (Inia 66/16) and Al sensitive (Henika), were estimated from experimental water vapor adsorption–desorption data. Roots stressed for around 1 week at pH 4 without and with a toxic aluminium level (0.741 mol m^–3) were studied at the tillering and shooting stages. Roots grown continuously at pH 7 were taken as control. The surface properties of the pH 4 stressed roots were apparently the same as those of the control roots whatever the root age. For the roots of both varieties, the surface area and total micropore volume increased markedly after aluminium treatment. The average micropore radius increased significantly for the sensitive wheat, whereas it increased only slightly for the resistant one. Under Al treatment the number of large pores increased while small pores were fewer for both plants, indicating a possible alteration of the build-up of root tissue. The root surface pores were fractal. The fractal dimension of the sensitive wheat roots decreased under Al treatment, whereas for the resistant wheat this remained apparently unchanged. The adsorption energy distribution functions had different shapes for the sensitive and the resistant wheat varieties: the sensitive variety had greater number of high energy adsorption centers, which implies that the root tolerance on Al stress may be connected with lower polarity of the surface.     

Mammals as prey: Estimating ingestible size

Most mammals have deformable bodies, making it difficult to measure the size of living or freshly killed ones accurately. Because small rodents are common prey of many snakes, and because nearly all snakes swallow their prey whole, we explored four methods for determining the ingestible size (the smallest cross‐sectional area that the largest part of the rodent can be made into without breaking bones or dislocating joints) of 100 intact rodents, including 50 Musmusculus and 50 Rattus norvegicus. Cross‐sectional areas derived from maximal height and width of specimens at rest or the same specimens wrapped snout to pelvic girdle are roughly 1.5× higher than areas calculated either by the height and width of the same specimens rolled into cylinders or by volumetric displacement. Rolling rodents into cylinders reduces cross‐sectional area by straightening the vertebral column, lengthening the abdominal cavity, elevating the sternum, compressing the thoracic cavity, and protracting the shoulder joint, that is, changes similar to those seen in rodents eaten by snakes. Reduced major axis regression of the smallest attainable cross‐sectional area, y, on mass, x, shows that y (in log mm²) approximates 1.53x (in log grams)^0.69 for rats and 1.63x^0.64 for mice. Our results suggest that visual cues provided by live rodents might lead most predators, like snakes, to overestimate ingestible size and hence rarely attack prey too large to ingest. J. Morphol. 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

基于生态系统服务供需的景感尺度特征分析和应用

自然生态系统与人类感知的交互作用是景感生态学关注的焦点，与生态系统服务的供需紧密关联。生态系统、生态过程、生态系统服务以及人的需求均具有一定的时空尺度特征，因此，由这些过程产生的"景感"也具有时空尺度特征，并依赖于这个过程的尺度特征相互作用。梳理生态系统服务供需关系与景感营造规划的尺度特征，探索二者相互联系，进而提出基于景感生态学理论，通过景感营造实现生态系统服务供需平衡的多尺度实现路径。从空间维度，体现从"社区-城市-流域-区域"的多尺度景感规划框架，从应用维度，体现从生态系统服务需求探索-关键指标体系识别-多源谜码数据感知-景感营造与规划设计的具体流程。通过多尺度的联合景感营造，调整自然供给水平与人类不同尺度的生态系统服务需求以期达到平衡，从而实现人类生存环境福利与居民福祉提升的目标。在此基础上，结合雄安新区规划建设实例，从多尺度景感营造的角度为城市绿色生态建设与可持续发展提出优化建议。主要结论：（1）基于"社区-城市-流域-区域"的多尺度景感分析框架，将景感要素与生态系统服务供需思想融入城市规划，在不同尺度上趋善优化，对于实现可持续发展城市规划和管理具有重要指示意义；（2）雄安新区规划设计需更系统和细致地考虑人类感知需求，通过多尺度景感营造设计，共同实现雄安新区的可持续发展与人居环境提升。其中，在社区尺度，需重点关注社区植被配置和居民的休闲游憩；在新区尺度重点关注绿地系统网络构建；在大清河流域尺度重点关注河流健康与水文调节；在京津冀区域尺度需注重山体通风廊道与生态屏障的构建与优化。     

Applications of KAM theory to population dynamics

Computer simulations have shown that several classes of population models, including the May host-parasitoid model and the Ginzburg–Taneyhill ‘maternal-quality’ single species population model, exhibit extremely complicated orbit structures. These structures include islands-around-islands, ad infinitum, with the smaller islands containing stable periodic points of higher period. We identify the mechanism that generates this complexity and we discuss some biological implications.